Global Inequality Essay: Cultural Tourism
Cultural
Tourism - A Critical Review of Opportunities of Cultural Tourism
Cultural tourism has no firm
definition, however it can be regarded as the style of tourism associated with a
country’s or region's culture, including but not limited to: regional history, the
local lifestyle, cuisine, religion(s), art and architecture and so on, through
which the tourist gains cultural information and experiences. According to the
OECD (2009), this sector of tourism is both the largest and the fastest
growing, meaning that any impacts upon the host location and its people will be
increasingly significant. Such impacts are varied, and can have both positive
and negative consequences for local people. Where these impacts arise from
tourists travelling from richer, developed nations to poorer, developing ones,
the economic disparity can give rise to power imbalances which can further
exacerbate socio-cultural impacts. In order to travel ethically by enhancing the
positive and mitigating the negative effects of cultural tourism, it is
important to identify these impacts, and understand them within a context of
global inequalities. UNESCO (2015) identify a number of opportunities brought
about by cultural tourism, and this essay will analyse the negative aspect of
these opportunities using sociological theories.[I1]
The UNWTO/UNESCO World Conference on
Tourism and Culture 2015 brought together Ministers of Tourism and Ministers of
Culture for the first time, and identified opportunities arising from the
growing market of cultural tourism (UNESCO, 2015; UNWTO, 2015). The
opportunities identified include increased competitiveness, the creation of
employment opportunities, and the opportunity to invest in preservation of
sites and artefacts of cultural significance. Furthermore, they claim that cultural
tourism brings opportunities for socio-economic development, can curb rural
migration, and can nurture a sense of cultural pride within the hosting
community (UNESCO, 2015). It is, however, naïve to assume that these benefits come without
cost, or even that they are in fact ‘benefits’ with inherent positive value for
the host communities. [I2]
While cultural pride may be nurtured
and investment could increase for the preservation of cultural sites
and artefacts, when the motivation for such investment is the attraction of
tourist dollars rather than the intrinsic value of the culture itself, the host
community may lack agency in the manner in which their culture is portrayed and
consumed (Burns, 2008). One way to understand this loss of agency is via the
work of Marx, who discusses power imbalances arising from the disproportionate
economic power held by those who own the means of production (Van Krieken et
al, 2014, pp. 209-211). In the case of cultural tourism, the ‘product’
encompasses such services as provision of accommodation and transport, cultural
artefacts such as local food and souvenirs, and access to cultural heritage
through museums and sites of significance. Where large companies control these
‘products’, they gain the power to market such cultural commodities to
travellers in a manner that best attracts income, rather than in a way that
best serves the people living that culture. This marketing can be seen as
analogous to Marx’s idea of hegemony, in which the ideas and rhetoric of the
powerful are perpetuated (Van Krieken et al, 2014, pp. 209-211). Additionally,
this raises an ethical dimension: if culture is a lived concept owned by all
who live it, what right do a few have to claim ownership in order to profit
from it? Indeed, the commoditisation of culture is itself a concern (Carrigan,
2010).[I3]
Lillemets (2013) raises the point
that the Marxist perspective is now less relevant due to its focus within
national boundaries; as borders become porous and inequality is viewed
globally, new theories are required. [I4] It may seem obvious that part of the
attraction of cultural tourism is to visit, observe, taste the exotic. This
type of experience is not necessarily bad; greater cultural competence can be
acquired through viewing the world from perspectives of people from different
cultural backgrounds (Sue & Sue, 2008, pp. 44-45), for which it is
beneficial to develop background knowledge of different religions, political
structures and world regions (Hogan-Garcia, 2003, p. 5). In counterpoint to genuine
cultural competence is Edward Said’s concept of the ‘Other’[I5] . The process of othering occurs when
different cultures are denigrated and delegitimised, including the construction
of stereotypical narratives in place of true understanding and respect (Habibis
& Walters, 2009, p. 107). Othering has created discourses of cultures being
inferior to and unfit for Westerners, to be studied from a Western perspective
rather than understood as legitimate
cultures of their own (Habibis & Walters, 2009, pp. 107-8). As Othering and
distinctiveness are the essence of cultural tourism, Otherness could therefore
be seen as an economic resource. This creates economic pressure for stereotyped
cultures to remain Othered in order to appeal, consolidating power structures
of dominance over the Other (Jamal & Kim, 2005). The power imbalance can be
seen for example in the nostalgic fascination for primitive societies with
their preserved historical authenticity (McRae, 2003), which could logically
lead to a reluctance for development for fear of losing the economic resource
of their Otherness. Even the language of Othering has cultural power, and can
entrench ideas of hierarchy and subservience (Habibis & Walters, 2009, p.
113), so its use in cultural hegemony or constructing the ‘Other’ for tourism
marketing must have a powerful effect on those who are part of the cultures in
question. It
is perhaps ironic that while effective marketing may depend upon the distinctiveness
or ‘Otherness’ of locations, when it also seeks to appeal to the Western imagination
of the Other then it can simultaneously homogenise the presentation of these
destinations (Carrigan, 2010). [I6]
UNESCO (2015) state that increased
competitiveness is an opportunity, however post-colonial theory forces the
question of who it is an opportunity for? During colonial times the government-sponsored
colonising forces would exploit their economically poorer colonies, directly
profiting from acquiring and trading the natural resources and agricultural products,
while keeping the local labour force cheap and oppressed (Habibis & Walter,
2009, pp. 42-45). Such oppression was possible due to the Othering of local
people, the creation of discourses and racial hierarchies that perpetuated
their low status (Habibis & Walter, 2009, pp. 42-45). In contemporary
times, it is through globalisation that trans-national corporations enter new
countries in order to generate profit (Habibis & Walter, 2009, p. 93)
through their ownership of land, resorts, retail outlets and other developments
(Carrigan, 2010). Cultural tourists may spend substantially more than other
holidaymakers (OECD, 2009), however when this money is spent at these
trans-national companies, potentially up to 90% of this profit is channelled
away from the local economy and back to the already-rich corporate stakeholders
through a phenomenon known as leakage (Carrigan, 2010; Burns, 2008). It is easy
to imagine trans-national corporations as modern colonial forces, as they
import foreign culture at the expense of displacing and homogenising local
culture (Burns, 2008). Development of tourist infrastructure homogenises the
built environment (Carrigan, 2010), while also maintaining the lower
socioeconomic status of, and higher cost of living for local
people by inflating real estate prices (Lincoln, 2013), and monopolising scarce
resources for relatively wealthy tourists (Burns, 2008). Land acquisition can
also cause conflict of land use as agricultural land is acquired for
development (Lincoln, 2013). The asymmetric balance of economic power can also
erode agency and autonomy when it comes to decisions regarding how to meet the
demands of trans-national tourist developers (Carrigan, 2010).
Employment opportunities are created
by the tourist industry (UNESCO, 2015), and being labour-intensive, tourism can
absorb unemployed, unskilled workers into
the labour force (Lincoln, 2013). However, this can happen at the expense of
displacement of traditional occupations towards roles in tourism and
hospitality (Lincoln, 2013)[I7] . In developing countries with poor
labour laws there may be no
guarantee that workers are not exploited or are fairly remunerated.
Displacement of traditional occupations could lead to dependence upon tourism
for employment, creating fierce competition leading to lower wages and greater
job insecurity. Economic dependence of the local workforce upon the visiting
tourists allows for huge power imbalances and risk of exploitation, akin to
that of the colonial masters and the colonised.
Simply the exposure of economically vulnerable people to capitalist
factors of greed, materialism and wealth can have a damaging effect on the
psyche (Lincoln, 2013). Seeing richer lifestyles which are constructed as superior may also increase dissatisfaction
with one’s own culture and status (Lincoln, 2013).
Socio-economic development is another
potential opportunity identified by UNESCO (2015), however even this is
ambiguous. Aside from economic leakage, social problems may also be exacerbated
by tourism: resort and hotel development can be insensitive and can lead to overcrowding
(Carrigan, 2010). Exposure to tourists can introduce or increase gambling,
alcohol consumption and prostitution (Lincoln, 2013). Unpleasant experiences
with tourists can lead to resentment (Lincoln, 2013), and Lincoln (2013) also
theorises that an abundance of wealthy victims, who as tourists are transient
visitors, might encourage crime while lowering the likelihood that perpetrators
will be caught. Environmental impacts are too complex for discussion here, but
include increased potential for consumption, littering, and pollution;
increased energy costs for transportation and hotel upkeep; increased visitors
to wild areas leading to erosion and distress to wildlife (Lincoln, 2013);
among many other effects. Even when socio-economic development does occur
locally, it is not guaranteed that this will improve the lived experience for
local people. Equality of distribution of income and wealth, rather than absolute
measures of economic growth, have a greater effect upon people’s health, happiness, and to an
extent personal autonomy (Burns, 2008).
While it is clear that cultural
tourism can create and perpetuate global social inequalities at many levels, it
is not categorically bad. Economic growth is required for development, and
tourism can be an important source of growth (Burns, 2008) and can provide
valuable employment opportunities (Carrigan, 2010). By being aware of the
equality pitfalls when travelling, tourists can make better ethical decisions
about how and where to spend their money. Understanding the concept of Othering,
and self-checking for this phenomenon, can allow for gaining more genuine
cultural knowledge, which in turn increases the capacity for cultural awareness
and better understanding (Hogan-Garcia, 2003, p. 5). Sociologists argue that
there is just one, human, race (Habibis & Walters, 2009, p. 42), and
cultural heritage tells the history of this race. Cultural tourists have an
unequal privilege in their ability to experience and consume global cultures,
and correspondingly have a responsibility to learn about and carry out their
duties as custodians of culture, for it belongs to us all.[I8]
References
Carrigan, A. (2010).
Postcolonial tourism, island specificity, and literary representation:
Observations on Derek Walcott’s Omeros, Space
and Culture. 13(2), pp. 154-163. doi: 10.1177/1206331209358220
Hogan-Garcia, M.
(2003). The four skills of cultural
diversity competence: A process for understanding and practice (2nd
ed). Australia: Thomson/Brooks/Cole.
Jamal, T. & H. Kim
(2005). Bridging the interdisciplinary divide: Towards an integrated framework for heritage tourism
research, Tourist Studies.
5(1), pp. 55–83. doi: 10.1177/1468797605062715
Lillemets, K. (2013).
Global Social Inequalities: Review Essay, desiguALdades.net Working Paper
Series 45. Retrieved from: http://www.iai.spk-berlin.de/fileadmin/dokumentenbibliothek/desigualdades/workingpapers/45_WP_Lillemets_Online.pdf
Lincoln, Z. (2013).
Socio-economic and cultural impacts of tourism in Bangladesh. European
Scientific Journal, Vol.2 SE, pp. 326-332. Retrieved
from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/docview/1525809183?accountid=10344
McRae, L. (2003).
Rethinking tourism: Edward Said and a politics of meeting and movement, Tourist Studies. 3(3), pp. 235–251. doi:
10.1177/1468797603049658
Sue,
D. W., Sue, D. (2010). Counseling the
Culturally Diverse: Theory and Practice (5th ed). Retrieved from
ProQuest database.
Van Krieken, R., Habibis,
D., Smith, P., Hutchins, B., Martin, G. & Maton, K. (2014) Sociology (5th
ed) Sydney: Pearson Australia.
UNESCO (2015)
UNWTO/UNESCO World Conference on Tourism and Culture gathers Ministers
of Tourism and Culture for the first time [UNESCO news article] Retrieved from:
http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1235?=&utm_source=CLT-WHC&utm_medium=email&utm_term=whc&utm_content=whc-information&utm_campaign=whc-information-february-en-20150212
UNWTO (2015) UNWTO/UNESCO
World Conference on Tourism and Culture: Building a New Partnership [report] Retrieved from: http://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284417360
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